external fusion 07

Blue Energy for Singapore

2008-04-07T11:26:00.001+08:00

Blue Energy

1. What is Blue energy?

- Characteristics of Membranes
- Advantages and Disadvantages

2. Analysing Singapore

- Current Situation

3. Needs of the Nation

- Rising population
- Greying Population
- Self-reliance (Total Defense)
- SUMMARY

4. Finding a suitable location

- Advantages
- Disadvantages

5. What if a Blue Energy Plant was set-up?

Implications
- Economical
- Political
- Social
- Environmental

6. Scenarios

- Best-case scenario
- Worst-case scenario and solutions in such situation

7.Bibliography

Blue energy or salinity gradient power

It is the energy retrieved from the difference in the salt concentration between *salt water and fresh water*. It is one of the largest sources of renewable energy that is still not exploited. The principle of blue energy is the utilization of the entropy freshwater with saltwater. This energy source is not easily understood, as it cannot be directly sensed in nature in the form of heat, wind, waves, or radiation, etc.

The potential energy is large, corresponding to 2.6 MW/m3 freshwater when mixed with excess seawater. The exploitable potential world-wide is estimated to be 2000 TWh/y. Although, the potential cost of blue energy is higher than most traditional hydropower, it is comparable to other forms of renewable energy that are already being produced in full-scale plants.

The two most important methods for this are Reverse Electrodialysis and Pressure Retarded Osmosis. Both these processes rely on osmosis with semi-permeable and ion specific membranes and the main waste product is brackish water, which is water that has more salinity than fresh water, but less than seawater.

Entropy- a function of thermodynamic variables, as temperature, pressure, or composition that is a measure of the energy that is not available for work during a thermodynamic process (definition given on dictionary.com)

*Salt Water: 35 dissolved salts parts per thousand; sea water.*
*Fresh Water: < 0.5 dissolved salts in parts per thousand (ppt); reservoir water.*

History of Blue Energy

Osmotic power was discovered by Sidney Loeb in 1973 (PRO). However, as technology was not as advanced and membranes were not as well-developed, no actual progress was made in this technology. During the 1980s and 1990s a breakthrough was made
Regarding membranes for RO and the membrane technology was successfully introduced in many industrial applications. In 1997, Statkraft engaged in the development of this technology and it built the first pilot operation plant in 2003.

PRO (Pressure Retarded Osmosis)

In PRO, the water potential between fresh water and sea water corresponds to a pressure of 26 bars. This pressure is equivalent to a column of water 270 meters high. However, the optimal working pressure is only half of this which is about 11 to 15 bars.

In order to obtain energy from salt water, two solutions of different concentration must be available. A device that extracts energy based on the osmotic pressure uses a semi-permeable membrane that enables water to pass through but not salt. Water from the compartment with the dilute solution enters the compartment with the concentrated solution through the semi-permeable membrane and raises its level. The difference in height achieved can then be used to drive a water turbine to produce electrical energy. Such a generator could be built.

Reverse ElectroDialysis (RED)

RED requires ion selective membranes, namely one that is selectively permeable for positive ions (cathodes) and one that is selectively permeable for negative ions (anodes).

Salt water and fresh water are let though a stack of alternating cathode and anode exchange membranes. This will cause the salt water to lose both positive ions and negative ions. This charge separation produces a potential difference that can be utilized directly as electrical energy.

The voltage obtained depends on the number of membranes in the stack, the absolute temperature and the ratio of the concentrations of the solutions, the internal resistance and the electrode properties. The chemical potential difference between salt and fresh water generates a voltage over each membrane and the total potential of the system is the sum of the potential differences over all membranes. So, the saltier the sea water and the fresher the fresh water, the higher the charge obtained.

Characteristics of membranes

The two membrane processes for energy production based on salinity gradients, pressure-retarded osmosis and reverse electrodialysis, have the following different characteristics:

· In PRO water, 99 mass percent of sea water has to pass the membrane. In RED only 1% of the mass, the salt content of sea water, has to pass the two membranes.

· In PRO, deterioration of the membranes by fouling has to be treated by chemicals potentially, which is less environmentally friendly. However, heavy ions present in sea water can be accumulated in the ion exchange membranes of RED. At the end of the life of the RED membranes they should be treated as chemical waste.

· More development funds are spent on RO membranes, resulting in low priced membranes, with can be of short term benefit for PRO application. For RED, a longer development time of low-priced membranes is to be expected or some technical breakthrough has to accelerate this.

· In PRO, the pressure differences, 20-25 bar for sea water and fresh water put severe requirements on the mechanical strength and leakage of the membrane stack. On the other hand, in RED the pumping action of the water streams through the tiny channels between the membranes in the stack cannot be ignored. This also requires some mechanical strength of the membranes, although leakages are less detrimental in RED. For reducing pump energy losses, more emphasis should be placed on the spacing design in the membrane stack of RED.

· In PRO, pressure or high, mechanical energy, should be converted into electrical energy by the application of generators.

· For RED, the electrodes supply an electrical output directly. PRO seems to be more appropriate for highly concentrated salt streams such as brines than RED. On basis of a recent evaluation study, RED performs better for a mixture of sea water and fresh water.

Advantages and Disadvantages of Blue Energy

Advantages of PRO and RED

Low price
Sea Water and Fresh water widely available (Singapore is surrounded by sea water)
Great potential energy (2.8 MW/m3)
CO2 free
Renewable
Realistic salinity gradient choice for the use of the river-sea interface potential

Disadvantages of PRO and RED

Cost higher then common hydro-power plants
Lack of efficient and suitable plant components
Currently still not fully developed

Advantages and disdvantages of PRO only

Cheap membranes
Chemicals used for treatment of cells; possible harmful to environment
More appropriate for highly concentrated salt streams
Severe requirements on the mechanical strength and leakage of the membrane stack

Advantages and disacvantages of RED only

Electrodes supply an electrical output directly
Chemical waste produced at end of life
Performs better for a mixture of sea water and fresh water
Requires further development
Require some mechanical strength of the membranes

ADVANTAGES– Of Blue energy as a whole

1. AVAILABILITY: Worldwide, a mixture of sea water and fresh water has by far the greatest potential. Blue energy is one of the largest sources of unexploited renewable energy.

2. POTENTIAL ENERGY: Its potential energy is large, equivalent to 2.6 MW/m3 (mega watts per meter cube) freshwater when mixed with excess seawater. The exploitable potential world-wide is estimated to be 2000 TWh/y (trillion watts per year).

3. ENVIRONMENTALLY FRIENDLY (to a certain extent: refer to disadvantages below): An increase in fossil fuel prices and geopolitical development will force the search for new energy sources. Because of global warming and the CO2 price this search will be for CO2 free energy sources, one of which is blue energy.

4. Blue Energy seems to be the most realistic salinity gradient choice for the use of the river-sea interface potential. Blue Energy can contribute to some extent to global (electricity) needs.

5. COST (to a certain extent): Pressure-retarded osmosis (PRO) and reverse electrodialysis (RED), depend heavily on membrane development. The main drawback of these membrane-based energy conversion techniques was the high price of membranes.
Due to the increasing price of fossil fuels and the added “negative price” for the CO2 emitted by fossil power plants, reconsideration were made of the available membrane-based processes for the production of sustainable power from salinity-gradient worthwhile.
However, due to increased importance of membrane technology in areas such as desalination and waste water technology, increased competition, increased membrane life, the lower manufacturing costs of the membranes for increased production volumes membrane, prices have been greatly reduced. Furthermore, a new, cheap membrane, based on an electrically modified polyethylene plastic, made it fit for potential commercial use. Osmotic inc. gave a rough estimate for the cost of the membranes in 1977. This amounted to about $0.20 /m2 if 2km2 of membrane area were produced. The power output for 1 km2 would, by 1977 amount to 1.62 MW. This number has been calculated from the values given by several tests on semi-permeable membranes. According to a calculation made by a scientist an osmotic plant is estimated to cost about $36.000 per installed kilowatt. Statkraft, the world’s current leader in this area of development has concluded that osmotic power would be competitive at today’s energy price level.

DISADVANTAGE

Along with the lack of efficient and suitable plant components, some pessimistic cost forecasts have been issued. The potential cost of energy from this source is higher than most traditional hydropower, but is comparable to other forms of renewable energy that are already produced in full-scale plants.

ADVANTAGES - PRO and RED specifically
**More development funds are spent on PRO membranes, resulting in low priced membranes, with can be of short term benefit for PRO application
****For RED, the electrodes supply an electrical output directly and don’t have to be converted.
*****PRO seems to be more appropriate for highly concentrated salt streams such as brines than RED
*****RED performs better for a mixture of sea water and fresh water.

DISADVANTAGES - PRO and RED specifically
*In PRO, deterioration of the membranes by fouling has to be treated by chemicals potentially, which is less environmentally friendly
*heavy ions present in sea water can be accumulated in the ion exchange membranes of RED. At the end of the life of the RED membranes they should be treated as chemical waste.
**For RED, a longer development time of low-priced membranes is to be expected or some technical breakthrough has to accelerate this
***In PRO, the pressure differences, 20-25 bar for sea water and fresh water put severe requirements on the mechanical strength and leakage of the membrane stack.
***in RED the pumping action of the water streams through the tiny channels between the membranes in the stack cannot be ignored. This also requires some mechanical strength of the membranes, although leakages are less detrimental in RED.

Current Situation

All of our sources of energy are non-renewable.
Singapore is a country with no natural resources but, being an island, what we have is salt water surrounding us. Furthermore, the earth is 70% covered in water. As we all know much of sea water cannot be consumed unless treated. Thus, this is a resource that can easily be tapped onto.

Future Needs of the Nation

Singapore is highly reliant in the use of fossil fuels and this would be a disadvantage to Singapore in the long run. At the same time, the graph proves that the consumption of energy is currently on an upward trend.

Being at the heart of South-east Asia, we are able to bring renewable energy solutions to South-east Asia. Countries such as Indonesia, Malaysia, Thailand and Philippines have an expected growth of 10% for the demand of electricity.

With reference to the above pie chart, we are able to infer that the much of usage is in the area of residential and transport. Currently, Singapore’s electricity generation capacity is 11.5 GW. There is an expected 4.2% increase in this demand. As Singapore is heavily reliant on the tertiary industry such as transport, banking, tourism and entertainment, we believe that this expected increase would be exceeded, with transport being the major consumer of energy. In contacts with the energy audit, such buildings are also large consumers of energy constituting 39% of the energy consumption in Singapore. If such households are able to reduce consumption, the overall consumption could be reduced by a great amount.

6.5 million Strong

As Singapore aims for a higher population of 6.5 million from the current population of 4.5 million, energy needs would, at the same time, rise by leaps and bounds. There is a requirement for energy for households, entertainment and to power the economy. This need comes as the government is encouraging the immigration of foreigners.

What is an Ageing Population?

An ageing population occurs when the median of a country region rises. It is the constituted shift in the distribution of a country’s population towards a higher age. And thus, this change leads to an increase population’s median age, and a decline in the fraction of the constitutional proportion of children. The increase in the older population is the result of the demographic shift from high to low levels of fertility and mortality. An ageing population is also commonly known as a graying of the world’s population.

The majority of older persons are women, as female life expectancy is higher than that for men. In 2000, there were 63 million more women than men aged 60 or older, and at the oldest ages, there are two to five times as many women as men.

When and in what ways is the world progressing to an ageing population?
Globally the population of older persons is growing by 2 per cent each year, considerably faster than the population as a whole. It is predicted that by 2050, nearly one in five of the world’s population will be aged 65 years and over. In Singapore, it is said that by 2030, the number of people aged 65 and above would multiply 3 times to 900 000.

As the pace of population ageing is much faster in developing countries, such as Singapore, than in developed countries, developing countries will have less time to adjust to the consequences of population ageing. Moreover, population ageing in the developing countries is taking place at much lower levels of socio-economic development than was the case in the developed countries.

What are the consequences of an ageing population?

MEDCs have a problem of increasingly large number of old people as this group depends on the working population for income and health care services.

Needs of an ageing population

Ageing population has different types of needs. There is a high demand for medical services and very old people often require expensive nursing care. Other needs made include, easy accessibility in neighbourhoods, barrier-free access, overhead bridges with escalators or suitable for wheel chairs and lift upgrading in older housing estates.

Economical Impacts

In the economic sector, population ageing will have an impact on economic growth, savings, investment and consumption, labour markets, pensions, taxation and intergenerational transfers. This is as the older people are consumers and not producers.

An ageing population would lead to higher dependency on the working population and as the number of younger people is lesser than those of a higher age, the work force would have a reduction in productivity and thus would lead to a slow down in economy.

Social Impacts

In the social sphere, population ageing affects health and health care, family composition and living arrangements, housing and migration. Due to work commitments of the younger generation, some of the old people would not have any one to care for them and as a result there is a greater need for nursing or old folks home. At the same time, as the proportion of old people increases, hospitals for children built in the past would not be fully utilized as needs of the elderly are much different from those of children.

Political Implications

In the political arena, population ageing can influence voting patterns and representation. For example, the population which mostly constitutes older people would probably vote for the political party which tends to the senior citizens rather the one which promotes more economic growth and education.

In conclusion an ageing population would require energy to power facilities such as health care centers, nursing homes. Due to an ageing population, there will be fewer funds to be used for the import of oil. As oil prices are expected to rise, we have to come up with an alternative ways to produce the energy needed. Other needs may include easy accessibility. Lifts for instance require energy to power them and as the flats are built higher towards the sky, there is a need for lifts in every flat.

Self-reliance

As for total defense, we as a country should be self-reliant. We should not take the peace that we have with other countries for granted. If, for some reason, in the future, countries in the middle east are not able to export oil due to war, we have to look for alternative solutions to our energy needs. This is similar to the recent case of the ban of the export of sand to from Indonesia to Singapore in 2007 where we had other sources of sand we could tap on to.

Summarized Needs

The 2 main needs of the country would be to help sustain this rapidly growing population in the aspect of residential energy consumption. The second need is to help drive the economy, without energy, most of modern technology, which require energy, would not be able to function. Furthermore, as our non-renewable fossil fuels are depleting, we have to ensure ourselves of an alternative source.

Finding a Suitable Location

Location
- Advantages
- Disadvantages

Rural environment
- Ample space to build generator
- Does not affect the surrounding community much
- Hard to channel electricity to places of need
- Hard to access if its going to be a tourist attraction

CBD (Central Business District)
- Easy to channel electricity to buildings, enough landmarks
- Easy accessibility to allow tourists to navigate their way
- Space limitations
- Low accessibility to water

Separate island
- Ample space
- Easy access to sea water which is the key component of Blue energy
- Difficulty in channeling electricity to the place of need
- Not as accessible for tourists

Housing Estate
- Easy access to reservoirs
- Easy accessibility for people (esp. workers)
- East to channel electricity to homes
- Limited space
- May not be able to access sea water unless near the sea

What if we implemented Blue Energy?

Should the blue energy be implemented in Singapore, there would most probably be political, economic, social and implications.

Economic implications

1) By implementing blue energy in Singapore, Singapore can set up an educational centre on blue energy. A case in point is the NEWater centre in Singapore.
It is carried out successfully, and not only does it serve as an educational purpose, but also another source for generating revenue, as well as through tourism.

Revenue:
Government expenditure comes from revenue, having more revenue would mean having more reources to be channelled to other areas in Singapore for other purposes to help Singapore to scale greater heights

2) Due to the fact that the energy is generated by the country itself rather than being imported, the cost of one unit of energy could possibly be lower and more affordable for either poorer households or starting businesses.

Political Implications

1) Having implemented blue energy in Singapore successfully, there is a possibility that foreign countries might like to buy our idea of this new technology or identifying the key aspects in setting up such a plant.

This kind of friendly exchanges (money with idea [economic implication], or idea with another idea) among countries would aid in fostering stronger ties among Singapore and foreign countries

Social Implications

1) Setting up the blue energy generator in Singapore, would mean the need for more hands to maintain the machineries there.
this would help to create more jobs in Singapore, thereby helping to ease the current taxi-driver's problem in Singapore due to the high ERP(electronic road pricing) that affect their incomes
Before anyone can be hired to work in the blue energy industry, they would need to attend upgrading courses to improve themselves, so as to equip them with the necessary skills needed
Skills:

This would brush up their skills and improve the people for the better, to help to serve Singapore better, and aid Singapore in achieving better results

Environmental Implications

1) By carrying out blue energy, which is a potential alternative way of generating electricity for Singapore, there is a higher chance of achieving Kyoto Protocol target.
Blue energy is sustainable, clean, renewable
In this way, Singapore can use less natural gas, fossil fuel, oil to generate electricity.

In order to prove that Blue Energy is a feasible solution, we have drawn out the best and worst case scenarios.

Best case scenario

1. Foreign investors are willing to invest in this blue energy in Singapore for they hope to gain from it in the long run. This means that Singapore has more money to spend on the research and development of blue energy, hence the use and advantages of blue energy can be brought to a higher level.

2. As blue energy has little or no known negative impacts on man and the environment, Singapore is able to meet its targets for the Kyoto Protocol more easily.

3. In addition to point 2, people are provided with a clean and healthy environment to live in. This implies that they would then be able to live longer and hence be able to contribute to the country and the society more.

4. The use of blue energy as a mean to provide Singapore with electricity implies that Singapore has more choices to choose from. Thus, the energy market is more competitive and the cost of each unit of electricity would be reduced and more households, especially poorer households, are able to afford electricity.

5. Singapore may offer grants and scholarships to promote the research into this blue energy thing so indirectly and in the long run, there would be more job opportunities for the people.

6. In the future, job opportunities would attract more immigrants and an increased talent pool for the country.

Worst case scenario (when the plant is already built)

For such facilities, the government would firstly consult the people and allow them to voice their opinions, similar to the case of Integrated Resorts. However, if the plant is already built the following is a possible scenario.

1.Looking at the results of a survey we carried out, 55% of people are willing to pay for cleaner alternatives and another 33% would choose to switch to greener alternatives if the price is right. Thus, we are ensured of a ready pool of buyers in Singapore. This would not be a problem and we are ensured of approximately enough revenue to cover the costs of setting up the plant. Furthermore, we understand that there is a high possibility that energy produced from such technology could possibly be much cheaper as it is renewable.

2.Other countries become envious of Singapore and hence they stop supplying the membranes or the electrically modified polyethylene plastic that is used to make the membranes. Without the plastics or the membranes, the use of blue energy as a mean of producing electricity would come to a standstill. Singapore would either have to think of ways to solve this problem, such as relying on other countries or producing the plastics itself, or look into other alternative energy resources. However, with the incoming talent pool and bright job prospects for talented individuals, Singapore is able to develop is own type of parts as such.

3.Competition from other alternative energy resources that may have gained the country’s or the people’s liking, such as piezoelectricity or solar. This means that some alternative energy resources that do not seem so beneficiary/practical/cheap may be omitted from the production of electricity in Singapore. However, in such case, the government has a huge impact on the people. Furthermore, with the blue energy education center set up, they are able to educate the public on such technology, similar to the case of NEWater.

4. Unexpected breakdown of equipments used, such as the generators. In such a case, temporary switch to energy from possible alternatives is possible.

5. Equipments used may require constant maintenance to keep them in their top conditions, but this may be costly and may be a burden on the country’s finances. However, revenue generated from visitors to the plant should be able to cover such costs.

6. Worn out/old machinery parts are difficult to replace for this concept (blue energy) is rather new hence the number of places which actually produce such spare parts would be limited as well. (Singapore is unlikely to have enough spare parts the equipment that is used in the blue energy thing which implies that the parts may have to be imported from other countries. This increases our vulnerability and we become more dependent on other countries. In addition, this import-process should be quite expensive too and may even take a long time.) With a similar to point 2, we are able to solve this problem. Having good ties with other countries such as the USA and ASEAN, this problem is not so likely to crop up.

7. Shortage of manpower as the people are mainly graduate’s and they would rather choose those high-ranking positions such as lawyers, doctors and bankers than to be in charge of all these equipments and make sure that nothing goes wrong etc. However, there are others who are more interested in this area of science and a school for the research of renewable energy could be set up to nurture students to excel in this area.

Continued. FLL 2007 Research Journal

2008-02-12T19:09:00.000+08:00

Carbon Monoxide emission

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/8/83/Waterspecies.gif

What is carbon monoxide? Carbon monoxide (CO) which consists of carbon atoms which are triply bonded to an oxygen atom is an odourless, colourless and tasteless toxic gas. When are not burnt properly, carbon monoxide is produced. Due to poor installation, poor maintenance or failure or damage to an appliance in service, incomplete combustion and poor ventilation may result in the accumulation and this could be fatal. The inhaling of Carbon monoxide may result in symptoms such as the impeding of coordination, worsening of cardiovascular conditions, and the production of fatigue, headaches, weakness, confusion, disorientation, nausea, and dizziness. Extreme levels of carbon monoxide may even lead to death.

Carbon Sinks

Soils, Oceans and the atmosphere store carbon, which move along theses stores constantly. However, the more important carbon store is fossil fuel deposits which are buried deep under the Earth. Naturally, this carbon store is separated from the carbon cycling in the atmosphere, unless Man introduces more carbon into the atmosphere while burning coal, oil or natural gas.

Greenhouse gas concentrations have soared by more than 30% higher than at the start of the industrial revolution. Currently, approximately 6 billion tones of carbon are released into atmospheric cycle annually. As a result, the intricate web of carbon fluxes have significantly been altered and also affecting the global climate. Carbon sinks have dominated the climate change agenda, diverting attention away from the unavoidable need to drastically curb greenhouse gas emissions in industrialized countries.

Endangering animal species

The negative impact on wildlife is mainly caused by the burning of fossil fuels and generation of electricity through nuclear activity. Marine life is affected when Man extract, refine, transport and generate power from such fossil fuels. Their habitat is destroyed though air and water pollution. Yet, there is no doubt that the most serve threat to wildlife is undeniably global warming. According to a major study, if Man continues emitting greenhouse gases, at the current rate, an estimated one million species, about forty percent of non-marine species, would be extinct in merely five decades.

Unfortunately, looking to other sources of energy might not save these endangered animals like birds and bats. Alternative resources like wind power, though is able to meet the wide-spread demand of electricity without creating air water or global warming, can still impact our endangered wildlife species. The machines used in the generation of electricity through wind, wind turbines, are dangerous as birds or even bats mat collide with these massive machines, as a result, may cause fatal injuries. Current studies have shown that an average of about three birds die per megawatt per year. Besides wind turbines, conventional power plants also contribute to the death toll of birds amounting to over one and a half thousand birds in less than ten years.

Impact on policies

Government policies have altered so it would help reduce the effects of pollution and global warming through subsidies, taxes and measures taken.

For example, In Denmark, where the tax on auto registrations exceeds a car’s retail price, and where rail and bike infrastructure are well developed, more than thirty percent of families do not even own cars. And where governments or companies subsidize public transit, people are more apt to commute by bus or subway than by car.

The most common government policy is increasing the price of electricity, as energy prices are the fundamental factors determining the nation’s energy intensity. Such countries include Japan and Germany.

Introduction

http://gailtheactuary.files.wordpress.com/2007/03/fossil-fuel.jpeg

http://www.newecology.org/documents/Forum%202004%20PDFs/LC%20New%20Ecology%20Forum.pdf

Humans have an unquenchable thirst for energy. Global demand for power has tripled since 1950, to the point that we now use the energy equivalent of 10,000 million tones of oil every year. According to the World Energy Council, energy consumption is likely to rise by 50 per cent by the year 2020. Most of our power comes from fossil fuels – coal, gas, and especially oil, which are all non-renewable energy source

How much is left?

In 1972, an influential group of planners and scientist published a book, the limits to Growth, which made a set of predictions about the fate of industrialized society amongst other things; the book forecast that world supplies of oil would dry as early as 1992. Clearly, this has not happened, but it indicates that fossil fuels we rely heavily on would be finished sooner or later. Current figures give the ‘lifetime’ of known coal reserves as about 20 years, oil 40 years, and gas as 70 years.

Demand for electricity

http://www.eei.org/industry_issues/energy_infrastructure/generation/index.htm#growing_demand

As the year pass, people look to faster and more powerful cars, which usually use much more fuel than average cars, thus, the demand of electricity increases and more fuel and electricity is required.

According to the Energy Information Administration (EIA), annual electricity demand is expected to increase by 1.5 percent per year through 2030. Overall, electricity consumption is expected to increase by at least 40 percent by 2030.

Alternative resources:

Renewable energy resources

Biomass
Blue Energy
Geothermal
Ground Source Heat Pump
Human-powered
Hydroelectric power
Lightning
Ocean Mechanical Energy
Fuel cells
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
Piezoelectricity
P-Series
Spinach
Solar energy
Sound energy
Tidal energy
Wave energy
Wind Kinetic

Non-renewable energy resources

Biodiesel
Biofuel
Biogas
Coal
Compressed natural gas (CNG)
Decentralised Generation
Ethanol
Fuel Cells
Fusion
Gas Hydrates
Gas-to-liquid fuel
Heavy Oil
Hydrogen
Liquefied natural gas (LNG)
Nuclear energy
Oil Shale
Propane
Uranium
Vegetable oil
Methanol

Among all these energy resources, there are disadvantages as well.

Biomass- Effect of landscape of and biodiversity; groundwater pollution due to fertilisers; use of scarce water; competition with food production

Coal- Global warming; environmental spoliation by open-cast mining; land subsidence due to deep mining; spoil heaps; groundwater pollution; acid rain

Geothermal- Release of polluting gases (SO2, H2S, etc); groundwater pollution by chemicals including heavy metals; seismic effects

Hydroelectric- Displacement of populations; effect on rivers and groundwater; dams (visual intrusion and risk of accident); seismic effects; downstream effects on agriculture

Natural Gas- Global warming; pipe leakage; methane explosions

Nuclear- Global warming (despite what they say); radioactivity (routine release, risk of accident, waste disposal); misuse of fissile material by terrorists; spread of nuclear weapons

Oil- Global warming; air pollution by vehicles; acid rain; oil spills; oil rig accidents

Solar energy- Sequestration of large land areas; use of toxic materials in manufacture of PV cells; visual intrusion in both rural and urban environments

Tidal power- Destruction of wildlife habitat; reduced dispersal of effluents

Wind power- Noise; visual intrusion in sensitive landscapes; bird strikes; TV interference

Energy Audit

Summary of building chosen:

House consists of the following areas:

7 toilets
8 bedrooms
1 study room
1 library
1 living room
1 laundry room
1 kitchen
1 Dining area

Main areas of energy consumption:

10 air conditioning units
5 desktops
4 laptops
4 televisions
4 hair dryers
4 CD players/radios
3 games consoles
2 fridge
1 washing machine
1 dryer
1 water heater
1 freezer
1 microwave oven
1 oven
1 vacuum cleaner
1 rice cooker
1 electric kettle

Lighting:

83 Halogen Light Bulbs (50 Watts ea)
33 Fluorescent Light Bulbs (36 Watts ea)
77 Energy-Saving Light Bulbs (17 Watts ea)

Number of occupants:

11 people
2 dogs
1 hamster
1 chicken

Why did we choose this common household?

-For this household, the average monthly electricity bill over three months is 1123.97 SGD with a peak of 1220.10 SGD although a solar panel has already been installed on the roof of the house for heating purposes. Despite so, the bill still exceeds the monthly average of approximately 550 SGD for landed properties like such.

-We feel that everyone has a part to play in conserving energy by reducing their energy consumption with minor changes to their daily lifestyles, and through this small action, we hope to help Singapore meet the target for Kyoto Protocol.

-As for this household, we think that we should offer them alternative solutions that are feasible, more dependable, and cost-effective. If we are able to succeed in reducing the energy consumption in this household, then we believe that other households are also able to do so.

Below is a summary of the energy use on a typical day:

Air Conditioning units
Quantity: 10
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 63.2

CD/DVD players
Quantity: 4
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 0.36

Computers
Quantity: 9
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 12.6

Electric Fan
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 0.225

Iron
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 1

Kettle
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 4

Microwave oven
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 0.675

Refrigerator
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 8.64

Rice Cooker
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 0.4

Televisions
Quantity: 4
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 28.8

Vaccum Cleaner
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 1

Washing machine
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 1.2

Water Heater
Quantity: 1
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 2

Lighting
Quantity: 70
Estimated Energy Consumption(KW per day): 9.5

Total: 132.6 KW

Rate($) 0.2138

In a month:
132.6 kWh x 0.2138 x 30days = $850.50

Possible Energy Sources:

Biodiesel: Requires plant = not feasible
Biofuel: Not feasible in a house
Biogas: Not feasible in a house
Biomass: Carbon neutral, emits CO2 = not feasible
Blue energy: Requires salt water = not feasible
Coal: Not feasible in a house
Compressed natural gas(CNG): Not feasible in a house
Decentralised generation: Requires generating plant = not feasible
Ethanol: Requires ethanol plant= not feasible
Fuel cells: Requires gas = not feasible
Fusion: Requires high temperature = not feasible
Gas Hydrates: Not feasible in a house
Gas-to-liquid fuel: Not feasible in a house
Geothermal: Requires ground heat = not feasible
Ground Source Heat Pump: Requires ground heat = not feasible
Heavy oil: Not feasible in a house
Human-powered: insufficient space = not feasible
Hydrogen: to be used in cars= not feasible
Lightning: Dangerous, still under research= not feasible
Liquefied natural gas(LNG): Not feasible in a house
Methanol: Not feasible in a house
Nuclear Power: Emits radioactive waves= not feasible
Ocean Mechanical energy: requires water body= not feasible
Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC): requires water body= not feasible
Oil Shale: Not feasible in a house
Piezoelectricity: Requires movement = possible in a house
Propane: Not feasible in a house
P-series: requires natural gas etc.= not feasible
Solar Energy: Already installed in a house
Sound Energy: Requires sound, which may be abundant in the house= possible
Spinach: Maybe too dear= not feasible
Tidal Energy: Requires water body and waves= not feasible
Uranium: Emits nuclear waves= not feasible
Vegetable Oil: Not feasible in a house
Wave Energy: Requires waves and water body= not feasible
Wind kinetic: Requires a lot of constant wind= not feasible

Wendy Wong
Executive Engineer,
Resource Conservation Department,
National Environment Agency

The Expert, Ms Wendy Wong speaks:
Piezoelectricity and sound energy are interesting, however, these two sources have never been used in Singapore households. Piezoelectricity requires movement, which also means that if there is no movement, there would not be any energy in the house. On the other hand, sound energy requires sound, maybe quite a lot of sound in order to produce energy. For these two sources, they are not feasible in such households, as the amount of sound waves collected would probably only be enough to power an electric fan, but definitely not many air-conditioning units in the house, and the same goes for piezoelectricity. Moreover, piezoelectricity requires high capital to order to make piezo-crystals.

Below is an abstract of our interview:

US:
Good afternoon, Ms Wong. We would like to enquire about energy conservation methods and technology.

Q:We have come up with 2 alternative energy sources for this household. The first is sound energy. What do you think of the idea and are we able to use it in the house since there is a lot of sound energy from the televisions and computers?

A:This is a very interesting idea. However, the amount of sound might not be enough to power appliances which consume a lot of electricity. The minimum amount of required sound could be very high.

Q:How about piezoelectricity? It could be implemented in maybe sofas, under rugs or on beds.

A:Like I said no movement, no electricity and that’s the main concern. Also, the amount of pressure on the crystals might not be enough and is only able to power a fan. Furthermore, these crystals could cost a lot.

Q:The house already has a solar panel. It is currently being used to heat water. Could it be used to power other electrical appliances in the home?

A:The amount of energy a solar panel can harness is minimal and can only be used to heat water.

Q:What do you think is the best way to reduce energy consumption?

A:Energy efficiency is very important, especially for those appliances which consume a lot of energy.

Q:The house almost has the air-conditioning on 24/7. Would you suggest a centralized-cooling unit?

A:To me, the best bet would be investing in air-conditioning units which are ‘INVERTER’ type, for example Daikin’s Inverter air-conditioning. It automatically cools the room according to the current room temperature. Or opt for energy-efficient products, those with the green-label. Other ways include increasing the temperature to about 25 degrees Celsius, double-glazing windows and putting shades in the house.

Q:What other ways can they reduce energy-consumption?

A: I believe that the little things play the most important role. For instance, computers or televisions should not be on standby mode, it’s just energy wasted. Changing to energy-efficient light bulbs would also help and don’t turn on the air-conditioning if it’s not necessary.

US: Thank you for your time. We have surely learnt a lot from this interview.

Conclusion: As we have shown above, the two solutions that we have proposed, sound energy and piezoelectricity, are not feasible in such households. Therefore, after some discussions, we have came up with some practices with Ms Wong, that can be conducted by the family members in the household to reduce their energy consumption.

Miss Wong advises this household to reduce their cooling usage.

-do not put electricity appliances on standby mode as electricity are wasted

-Change windows to double-glazed windows with shades, to shield the house from sunlight, and thereby reducing cooling usage, air-conditionings.

-Install a meter to monitor energy consumption, so as to rise the family members’ awareness about the amount of energy they are using

-Invest in inverter air conditioner
An inverter air conditioner has an inverter circuit that regulates the rotational speed of the compressor to match the output of it to the cooling pump load. This can reduce the number of times the compressor stops and starts as the load vary, thereby saving on electricity bills as lesser energy is consumed. In addition, the noise produced by this inverter models is lower than normal non-inverter models.

-Set the air-conditioners at 25 °C so that less energy would be used to power the air-conditioners, without minimizing the comfort.

We believe that these practices are ideal long-term solutions for this household and if they are put in use properly by the family members, their energy consumption would be reduced. Adding on, if this household can succeed in doing so, we believe that other households can do it too. Together, we can make Singapore pollution-free and help Singapore achieve the Kyoto Protocol target.

Our Conclusion
Due to the ever changing needs of Singapore, we suggest that Singapore look toward alternative energy sources, such as Blue Energy. We think that blue energy is suitable for Singapore to carry out, as Singapore is an island and is surrounded by waters. Blue Energy is the energy retrieved from the difference in the salt concentration between seawater and river water with the use of osmosis, also known as reverse electrodialysis(RED) with ion membranes. The membranes are cheap, made from an electrically modified polyethylene plastic. This technology of reversed electrodialysis has been confirmed in laboratories. Further researches about Blue Energy are still being carried out by scientists. We believe that Singapore’s level of technological knowledge would aid Singapore in further research and implementation of blue energy.
We strive to make Singapore a better place for the people of tomorrow. Imagine a clean, pollution-free, Singapore with places for work and leisure. Such a utopian environment is currently in our dreams, but if everyone plays a part, it could be reality in the near future.

Case studies of buildings in Singapore that have implemented green schemes:
1) National Library Building(NLB)
2)Alexandra Hospital
3)Biopolis
4)Capital Tower
5) Grand Hyatt Singapore
6) Infinium
7) Monterey Park
8) One George Street
9) Parc Emily
10) Republic Plaza
11) Savannah Park

Out of all the above buildings, National Library Building (NLB) has achieved the highest award – Green mark Platinum

The main green features that National Library Building possesses are:

-sunshading device that is installed on the west face of the building, shelter the building from solar heat gain and glare

-Daylight sensors are utilized with automatic blinds at the front of the building

-natural ventilation and day lighting as an open plaza area is constructed between the two blocks.

-temperature is lowered by the sky terraces, roof gardens and extensive landscaping that are built

-rain sensor is utilized as part of the automatic irrigation system for rooftop gardens

-Water is conserved by using water efficient taps and cisterns

We have conducted a survey to find out Singaporean’s awareness about energy issues. Below are the results as follows:

Average Age 33.45333333

Range 12<->73

Total responses 78

1) What types of alternative energy are you aware of?

Wind Energy 68

Hydro-electric Power 69

Solar Power 72

Biomass 25

Hydrogen 35

Marine Sources 25

Vegetable Oil 35

Blue Energy 8

Others 13 Coal

Nuclear

Geothermal

Biodisel

Natural Gas

Sound

2) Are you aware of the consequences of over exploitation of fossil fuels?

Yes
53

Not at all
2

A little
23

3) Would you be willing to pay more for energy-saving products?

Yes
25

No
2

Unsure
7

Probably
18

Depends
26

4) Do you take public transport?

Yes
59

No
10

No, I have other modes of transport
19

5) If buses were made environmentally friendly, would you pay more for the bus fare?

Yes
52

No
26

6) Do you think alternative energy would be more cost-efficient?

Yes
51

No
27

7) Are you willing to pay more for a hydrogen-powered car?

Yes
26

No
23

8) What does energy conservation mean to you?

Saving the Planet for future generations.

The awareness to help to conserve energy and not to waste and take things for granted.

To ensure that there will still be energy for future use.

To ensure a continuous supply of energy for future generations to use.

Energy is useful especially for human beings

To ensure that there will be energy for future use.
The awareness to help to conserve energy and not to waste and take things for granted.

Saving the planet for future generations.

All resources are limited wastage of all things should be eliminated.

Trying to minimizes energy consumption.

To ensure that there will still be electricity in the future.

It means saving energy so that it will not deplete so soon.

Saving energy for the next generation.

Using less energy.

It means saving thee Earth!

Its to minimize the usage of energy.

It means lasting longer of limited resources using alternative energy resources & perhaps a greener environment in the long run.

To use energy wisely.

Helping to stop global warming.

USE CAREFULLY.

9) What do you think of using heat from the ground to warm water instead of using electricity?

Not a bad idea
40

Not worth paying for
9

Terrific idea
29

10) What do you think of human-powered gyms?

Not a bad idea
51

Not worth paying for
14

Terrific idea
13

11) What other views do you have towards this subject?

Improve people’s knowledge and learned more about energy and energy resources

The most important thing is to aim to change the mind set of the public and then adopt campaigns according to their views, making campaigns more effective.

The exposure given to the younger generation. Hopefully in the near future, some bright sparks may come up with new inventions to save up, one step ahead of others.

People should quit whining about global warming and do something about it. Stop abusing the air-conditioning!!!! Switch it off…

I suggest the government do more to tackle the problem.

Fossil Fuels should NOT be our only source of energy.

Exploration of other means of energy for our uses provides alternatives and help users to be more energy-conscious with more options available to them.

Energy is very important to us and we should use it wisely.
CONSERVE AS MUCH AS POSSIBLE

From this survey, we understand that most Singaporeans know the consequences of over exploitation of resources, such as global warming etc. They are however less aware of the types of energy sources and somewhat disagree to pay more for energy-efficient and energy-saving products.

2007-12-13T10:50:00.000+08:00

World energy consumption

http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/en/a/a0/World_Energy_consumption.png

Our personal energy choices and their impact on the Environment

Energy is not only required to sustain life, but also needed to drive the global economy. Global consumption is growing at a high rate. US Department of Energy projects forecasted an increase of 60% in the world’s consumption from 1999 to 2020. Along side with this, it is predicted that there will be 60% increase in carbon emissions, as the world’s population increases from 6 billion to 7.5 billion people.

The world is facing major energy problems, which is not having adequate and secure supplies of energy at affordable prices that will not cause any harm to the environment by consuming too much of the energy supplies.

Fossil fuels, such as coal and oil, and natural gas, are the worlds chief source of energy. These fossil fuels are used to fuel our cars and generate electricity to heat our homes, charge our cell phones and power our computers, all of which are essential in our daily lives. Yet, the extraction and burning of these fuels pose severe threats to human health, the economy and the all-important environment. Improving energy efficiency is a significant first step towards reducing the dangerous consequences of mankinds energy use, but it is compulsory for us to do even more.

All forms of electricity generation have some level of environmental impact. Using energy more efficiently though more efficient end-uses or though more efficient generation, such as combined heat power, reduced the amount of fuel required to produce a unit of energy output and reduces the amount of energy output and reduces the corresponding emissions of pollutants bad greenhouse gases. Electricity from renewable resources such as solar, geothermal, and wind technologies generally does not contribute to climate change or local air pollution since no fuels are combusted in these processes.

There are countless energy resources available; by understanding the impact of our energy choices, we can make more responsible decisions that will paint a brighter future for the children of the world, while providing the energy we need.

One can make a difference just by making wise choices in everyday life. As seen in the graph (above) and pie chart (left), transportation takes up a huge percentage of energy use and thus, our choice of transport in our daily lives has an impact on the environment as it affects carbon dioxide emissions which contribute to global warming.

Reasons for extensive usage of energy sources
· Economic growth
· Increase in the worlds population
· Mans greed

Impact on the Earth
· Global warming
· Pollution
· Acid Rain (Acid Precipitation)

There are also health consequences as you can see from the diagram on the right. They include chronic and terminal illnesses.

*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~*~

Pollution

Pollution refers to the contamination of the natural environment by the introduction of foreign substances or increase in concentration of naturally occurring substances.

Major forms of pollution
· Air Pollution
· Water Pollution
· Land pollution
· Noise Pollution
· Light Pollution

Air Pollution

http://www2.nature.nps.gov/air/AQBasics/images/AQBas icSources.gif

There are many sources of air pollution ranging from automobiles, a human source, to volcanoes, a natural source.

· Man-made Air Pollution
· Natural Air Pollution

Natural Air Pollution

Natural air pollution can be caused by a number of sources:
· Volcanic eruptions blow ash and gases into the atmosphere over a relatively large area.
· Hot, dry weather, which creates winds that send soil particles as dust storms.
· Methane gas is released by wetlands of swamps, mudflats and shallow lakes.

Fortunately, these pollutants are managed by the physical environment properly. Dust will eventually settle and became part of the soil, while volcanic ash can add to the fertility of soil.

Man-made Air Pollution

Causes of man-made air pollution:
· Factories/industrial activities
Factories are expanding larger in sizes and numbers than before. Most factories utilize electricity produced by power stations. A number of such power stations burn coal, gas, oil etc to generate electricity. Waste gases like sulphur dioxide (SO2) and nitrogen oxides (NOX) and solid particles are produced in significant amounts during the burning of fossil fuels.

These air pollutants know no boundaries and are discharged into the atmosphere. They may be blown over national borders, across countries and seas to pollute other areas.

Source: Energy Information Administration, 2005
The above graphs tell us that coal and oil, two of the major resources we use to generate electricity emits the most carbon dioxide whereas wind does not emit any carbon dioxide.

· Motor vehicles
Due to rising affluence, more people can afford private vehicles. As motor vehicles burn petrol, nitrogen oxides, hydrocarbons and carbon monoxide are discharged. Lead is sometimes added to petrol in some areas, and some of which will be released through vehicle exhausts. These harmful air pollutants are dangerous to life on Earth.

· Forest fires
Forest fires may be caused naturally, however, human activities have been responsible for igniting fires in recent years. Fires produce smoke and ash particles, which can be spread to other regions beyond the areas that are burning.

Further effects on environment:
· Formation of smog
Smog: clouds of pollutants blanketing large areas.

· Degradation of buildings

Having been through many thousand years of wars and many visitors, most parts of the buildings on Acropolis are still standing. However, pollutants from vehicles, power stations etc are eating away the marble of the Acropolis buildings. City authorities had planned to construct a large glass dome over Acropolis to preserve the remains of the great architecture.

·Acid rain
Airborne pollutants, such as sulphur dioxide and nitrogen oxides from factories and power stations, produce acid rain when combined with rain. All rainfalls are acidic, and acid rain’s pH value is less than 5.6.
Such pollutants can dissolve in rainwater to form acid rain and even smog. Acid rain may cause the erosion of architecture and the increase of soil and water acidity that may affect aquatic and plant life, and loss of forest. Acid rain killed off much of Germany’s Black Forest, contaminated many Sweden’s lakes, making it suitable for fish and other creatures to live in, and destroy buildings like the gold leaf on churches in Eastern Europe, Parthenon in Greece etc.

Effects on man:
Air pollution can cause health problems such as respiratory problems, bronchitis and asthma, burning eyes, sore throat etc, which can be fatal at times.

Water Pollution

Water pollution is the change in the biological and physical and chemical conditions of a water body which harmfully disrupts the balance of the ecosystem.
An example of water pollution would be the Mediterranean Sea. Chemicals runoffs from industries, agricultural etc are discharged into rivers flowing into the sea. Untreated wastes are also disposed directly into the sea, resulting in heavy pollution of Mediterranean Sea’s coastal waters. This is exacerbated by Mediterranean’s small tidal range, which prevents pollutants from being washed away from the coast.

It is mainly caused by human activities:

· Discharge from vessels(oil spills)
12% of oil that enters water is caused by oil spills while the other oil discharges are from tankers disposing of waste oil, cleaning their tanks etc. In 1989, around 40 million litres of oil was spilled and affected hundreds of kilometres away. This happened in Prince William Sound in Alaska.

· Discharge of untreated wastes from industrials(asbestos, mercury, sulphur and petrochemicals etc)

· Discharge of untreated agricultural wastes(pesticides, herbicides, fertilizers etc)
In water, items such as newspaper and photodegradable packaging takes approximately 6 weeks to degrade while items like plastic packaging take and estimated 400 years to degrade.

Effects on environment and men:
· Eutrophication of water bodies
This is a serious threat to marine life as it may cause algal blooms to take place due to increased nutrients in water that are discharged by farmers. When multiplication of algae happens, phytoplankton grows and reproduces swiftly. The algae may take in all the oxygen and leave the marine creatures with none. Sunlight might be blocked, affecting photosynthetic aquatic plants. Some algae also produce toxins that are harmful for marine life and this affects the food chain. (Contamination of food sources)

· Destruction of marine ecology
Untreated wastes from industries such as detergents and chemicals, combined with untreated human wastes, can pollute rivers and oceans located near human settlements. Deprived of oxygen due to the existence of pollutants, fish and plants will be destroyed and probably poisoned.
In addition, oil spills also affect marine ecology. Oil is not able to dissolve in water and form a think sludge in the water, preventing oxygen from reaching marine creatures under water. This may result in the suffocation of fishes or the clumping of feathers of a water bird and preventing them from flying, or even the blocking of light from reaching photosynthetic aquatic plants.

· Contamination of food sources
The effects are catastrophic to local marine wildlife such as fish, birds and sea otters. The marine life is seriously at risk and land creatures that depend on marine creatures for food are also in danger. Harmful bacteria that contaminate the water and marine life can be passed on to other life forms including men in the food chain.

Land pollution

Land pollution is the degradation of the Earth’s surface through the abuse of soil through poor agricultural practices, mineral exploitation, industrial waste dumping and indiscriminate disposal of urban wastes.

Causes of land pollution:
· Improper dumping of untreated wastes, from industries etc.
· Agriculture
Chemically-based fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides are utilized in modern farming. When excessive amounts of such chemically-based substances are used, they can collect in the soil or enter watercourse. Earthworms, bugs may feed on particles of such harmful substances in the soil, and if these organisms are consumed by their predators, birds etc, fatal chemical particles would be passed on in the food chain.
Adding on, plants cannot thrive in soil with such chemical concentration.
· Mining

Mining requires removal of soil and rocks in relatively large quantities in order to gain access to mineral-bearing rocks. If mine sites and waste dumps are not restored properly, damage can be caused to the environment. Rain, wind can carry wastes away and pollute rivers, settlements, environments.

Effects on men:
The accumulation of waste threatens the health of people in residential areas. Waste decays, encourages household pests and turns urban areas into unsightly, dirty and unhealthy places to live in.

Noise pollution

Most noise pollution is caused by human activities like construction, industrial etc. Noise pollution can cause headaches, sleep disturbances, high blood pressure, and probably the likelihood of more accidents.

Light pollution

Light pollution simply means excess light created by men that annoys others, leading to discomfort, headaches, high blood pressure etc. Light pollution can be caused by various human activities, like advertising, illuminated sporting venues, offices etc.
In addition, light pollution disrupts ecosystems. Examples of such are:
· Studies reveal that light pollution limits the eating of surface algae by zoo-plankton such as Daphnia. This in turns aids algae blooms that are harmful to aquatic life.
· Migratory birds have also been killed due to light pollution as birds are attracted to lights on tall buildings.
· Casualties of hatching sea turtles are elevating as they find their way to the ocean by moving away from dark areas. Artificial lights disorient their behaviors, causing their deaths.